Offbeat

The Sensuality of Indian Movement

Ivan Pulinkala, a US-based contemporary choreographer of Indian origins, attempts to derive an answer to the apparent divide between the sensuality depicted in ancient Indian literature and iconography and the conservative nature of Indian society that had baffled him as a child of Indo-British lineage growing up in New Delhi.

The ancient movement arts of India are more easily understood when contextualized and viewed in the philosophical and ideological framework of Indian culture and history.  It is paradoxical to understand how the sacred and the sensual exist as part of a single philosophy, interweaving Indian tradition, religion and culture to form a complex way of thinking, feeling and existing.

Growing up in India, born into a family of mixed heritage (Indian and British), I often found it perplexing how Indian art oozed sexuality and sensuality while Indian society embodied an extremely conservative view of these issues.  The liberal nature of my upbringing made me question this strange void that existed between art and life. As a child visiting ancient Indian temples, I was often struck by the graphic nature of the wall carvings and statues.  Plastered across the facades were images of Indian deities depicted in graphic poses that celebrated the sensuality of the human body and its movement. As I grew, my search for my western roots led me to theatre and finally to western modern dance.  I continued to question the reasons for this strange philosophical divide between Indian art and society.  Returning to India I began to study Indian movement in antiquity, and searched for the historical answers to my questions about this dichotomy. How did one of the worlds oldest cultures break away from its philosophical roots to embody such conservatism, while continuing to honor its rich mythological literature that seemed vitalised by its sensuality.

Indian art divides aesthetic experience into three distinct but interrelated elements – the senses, the emotions and the spirit. Through a deliberate sensuousness and voluptuousness, these elements are fused through a complex symbolism (National Geographic). The tensions of the shringara rasa (erotic love) have always been a central theme in Indian dance. In my study of Indian religion and art, I found it of essence to understand that the sensuality depicted through Indian mythology and religious scripture is not the kind of sensuality we experience in modern culture. For example, the sensuality of Krishna and his sexual nature may seem shocking to the modern mind that does not understand his symbolism and metaphorical philosophy.  Krishna frolics in the jungle with his female following, holding wild orgies and drawing women to leave their husbands for his celestial beauty with the calling of the sound of his flute.  The metaphorical significance is very removed from the actions of the flesh.  The calling of the sound of his flute is the calling of all beings by the supreme soul, the sexual union depicted in the texts is symbolic of the union of all souls with that of the supreme soul at the end of the cycles of transmigration.  Thus the sensuality often revealed on the surface of Indian art and movement has a much more spiritual significance, bridging the physical with the metaphysical.  To be able to grasp this essential ingredient of Indian philosophy, we have to be able to free ourselves from our modern ways of linear thinking, and allow our minds to dwell in a more ambiguous existence that allows for the non-rational understanding of depicted events and life.  Perhaps a parallel of this could be the symbolism associated with the parables of the bible, even though I caution that Indian mythology is not written with the same level of intent.  While we may grasp this way of understanding Indian art, it still does not however answer the question of the dichotomy that exists between the sensual nature of Indian movement and art, and the conservative spirit of Indian society. 

In order to study this unusual phenomenon, I decided to first take a look at the relationship between ancient Indian cultures, their movement arts, and their link to social behavior.  The dance heritage of India is at least 5000 years old, proved with evidence found in the ruins of the Mohenjodaro civilization from as far back as the 2nd century BC.  Many group and solo dance sequences are also depicted in exquisite rock carvings and paintings in places like the Ajanta and Ellora caves at Khajuraho (Kamat).  Through the carvings depicted on the ornate temples of the ancient Hoysala dynasty (1000 AD to 1346 AD), historians have been able to study the artistic and religious patronage of the Hoysala kings, and ascertain their close social ties to the ancient Indian movement arts (Kamat2).  Ancient Vedic literature, the oldest of Indian literature, states that the ritual of dance has always accompanied religious ceremonies.  Shiva a principal god is the celestial representation of the sacred movement arts of India, and depicted as Nataraja, the king of dancers (Muni).  According to Ananda Cooramaswamy, an eminent Indian scholar, the dance of Shiva is a manifestation of the primal rhythmic energy having three meanings: the source of all movement within the cosmos; the release of countless souls of mankind from the snare of illusion; and finally, the place of dance, Chidambaram, the center of the universe, that is within the heart. 

The Natya Shastra is the oldest surviving text on stagecraft in the world.  Believed to have been written between 200 BC and 200 AD, it contains deliberations and regulation for the performance of the ancient stage arts, including make-up, costume, dance, music, and drama.  It is believed that Brahma, the creator, created Natya (dance), taking literature from the Rig Veda, songs from the Sama Veda, abhinaya or expressions from the Yajur Veda, and rasa or aesthetic experiences from the Atharvana Veda. The Natya Shastras also contain deliberations on the different kinds of posture, the mudras or hand formations and their meanings, the kind of emotions and their categorization.  Also included in the text are rules guiding the kind of attire, the stage, the ornaments and even the audience (Chaudhury). 

Indian dance has thus traditionally played an integral role in religion and ritual.  These religious dances over time evolved into complex classical forms of dance.  Even today, classical Indian dance forms retain their religious roots, and employ religious folklore as subject matter for the dance.  The popular classical form of Kuchipudi, a dance-drama from the state of Andhra Pradesh, is based on themes from the epics of the Ramayana and Mahabharata.  The most popular form of Indian dance the Bharatanatyam is based on the Natya Shastras, and evolved as a temple dance in the temples of Tamil Nadu.  I find a striking parallel between the way ancient Indian and Greek cultures viewed dance.  Both cultures draw their subject matter from mythological gods, and place the movement arts in high social regard.  Ancient Indian society, much like the Greeks, used dance as a form of worship, and believed that the art of dance was an invention and gift from the Gods, integral to human existence.  The movement arts enjoyed a very high place in society, and their association with religious worship gave them a great deal of respect from rulers and common folk alike.  Sensuality and sexual union was displayed without inhibition in temple sculpture, and was a representation of the tantric ideas of the compatibility of sexuality with human spirituality.  Ancient Indian mythology does not view erotic desire as antagonistic to spiritual liberation as is the case with Catholicism, but instead an important component of spiritual release.  The depiction of sensuality in ancient Indian temples were a symbol that the religion was not based on sexual starvation, but rather a healthy and egalitarian acceptance of all activities that contributed to the emotional health and well-being of human society.  Indian religion and its monumental expression were based not on worldly denial but on unabashed acceptance of essential human urges.

The earliest recorded evidence of the change in equilibrium between the sensual and the spiritual can probably be dated back to the Islamic invasions of northern India-15th to 19th centuries (Berinstain).  The new rule, brought with it a slow divorce between the society and it’s past movement heritage.  While ancient India embraced sensuality as part of a physical existence on earth, the new rulers brought with them new ways of thinking that were less accepting and understanding of the exposition of sensuality.  The sculptural exuberance that characterized the classical Indian temples, and gave public validity to the notion of embracing sensuality as part of being human, had started to decline.  The Islamic ideology forbade the representation of God in a human form, thus Indian dance had to be modified for its new Muslim rulers, causing a greater divorce from the liberal and religious beliefs of the past.  Over time, Indian dance was changed to the status of nautch, a sensuous art performed by courtesans for the entertainment of humans.  There was a dynamic shift in the purpose and function of Indian dance.  It was slowly relinquishing its religious and deeper philosophical existence for a form that was intent on entertaining rather than evoking thought. 

Perhaps the biggest change in the idea of sensuality being a vital and visible part of society came with the European invasion of India.  Christian ideology seemed to be at direct conflict with the ancient philosophical ideas that had been vital to Indian movement.  The British invaders viewed Indian movement as entertainment in the courts of the Mughal kings. By this time Indian movement had embraced a sensuality that was not of the spiritual nature, but rather a kind that was intended for human pleasure rather than spiritual growth.  The Indian dancers no longer enjoyed their high status as a representation of the divine, but rather as common entertainers in the courts and homes of the wealthy.  The new European invaders viewed Indian dance much like the Christian moralists viewed Roman dance at the start of the Middle Ages.  They saw a form that had lost much of its artistic integrity, relinquished to serve a more earthly purpose.  Thus like the early Christian moralists, they never developed a respect or appreciation for the art of dance, and had no reason to work towards it preservation or development (Watson).

The decline of the great movement heritage of India was further amplified by the fact that the new European rulers had no interest in the welfare of India or its culture.  The colonization of India was predominantly aimed towards the development of their own commercial interests.  The British rulers had no interest in preserving the movement or art heritage of India, nor did they develop an understanding of the philosophical significance of the sensuality of Indian movement and art.  Their experience of Indian dance was very superficial, and they did not experience its true artistic identity as the physical representation of one of the oldest cultures of the world.  British rule eventually prohibited the public performance of dance, linking it with immoral trafficking and prostitution (Watson).  The sad reality was that the once highly respected temple dancer or devadasi, had lost her platform as a human manifestation of the divine.  This caused the upper classes to look down on these artists of the past, labeling them as women of poor character who were giving Indian society a bad name.  In order to rub shoulders with the British rulers and win favor with them, the upper Indian classes soon adopted the western view about Indian dance, and held that dance was not a profession for a respectable woman of good moral character.  It is ironic that even though the devadasi tradition had lost its high status as a vehicle for the preservation and development of a supreme art form, it managed to keep the art of Indian dance alive.  One generation passed on their skills and knowledge to the next, and Indian dance survived years of foreign invasion with little or no government support.

A big psychological change was taking place with regard to Indian dance.  The ancient movement heritage of India, that had once exemplified the sensual and spiritual as integral to its existence, now saw a rejection of this aspect in Indian dance.  Indian society, recovering from years of invasion and now far removed from ancient vedic times, failed to see the spiritual significance of the ancient movement arts of India.  The generations to come would completely reject the manifestation of the spiritual and sensual as integral to Indian movement and dance.  Indian dance struggled to survive in the shadow of brothels.  Not only had it lost its religious and courtly patronage, but more importantly it had lost its place in Indian society. 

Centuries of foreign invasion and rule had a catastrophic impact on Indian dance and movement.  Indian society grew to reject the ancient tantric idea of sexual and spiritual compatibility.  The last 50 years of Indian freedom has seen a redevelopment of art and culture.  Indian artists like Uday Shankar have worked tirelessly to bring back the great movement heritage of India, and give it international recognition and respect.  However, even today Indian society continues to live in the shadow of colonization and foreign rule, and has not reverted back to accept sensuality as integral to its movement expression.  Much like a child who has suffered serious humiliation and loss of self respect, the Indian movement arts continue to struggle to regain their true vitality and place in society.  Popular media like Bollywood, have exploited Indian movement for entertainment and highlighted the notion of Indian dance being a pleasure of the flesh. Sensuality is no longer a celebrated aspect of Indian dance and society, and the emerging classical dancers struggle to regain their cultural and social identity.  The conservative spirit of India, values human sensuality is an unspoken aspect of existence rather than a celebrated act of human expression.  It is ironic that the culture that gave the world the Kama Sutra has grown to reject human sensuality as a vital and integral part of its existence. 

References
Berinstain, Valerie. India and the Mughal Dynasty. N.Y. Harry Abrams, 1998.
Chaudhury, Pravas Jivan. “The Theory of Rasa” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 11, 2:147-150.
Kamat, K.L. Hoysala Art and Architecture. 15 July 1999. http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/hoysala/intro.html
Kamat, K.L. History of Indian Dance. 5 August 2006. http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/dances/dances.html
Muni, Bharata. Natyasastra. Trans. And ed. Manmohan Ghosh. 2nd rev. ed. Vol 1. Calcutta: Manisha Granthalaya, 1967; and Vol2 Calcutta: Asiatic Society.
‘National Geographic.’ Dakshina/ Daniel Phoenix Singh and Company in Dancing Across India http://www.dakshina.org/Events/NGSProgram.pdf
Watson, Francis. A Concise History of India. London. Thames and Hudson, 1974.

(Ivan Pulinkala is a contemporary choreographer living in the United State of America. Originally from New Delhi, he received his Master of Fine Arts degree in dance from Mills College in Oakland, California. Pulinkala currently serves as the Director of the Program in Dance at Kennesaw State University in Atlanta, Georgia. Website: www.ivanpulinkala.com )